The Last Emperor (1987, directed by Bernardo Bertolucci)_From Emperor to Citizen.

“The Last Emperor” is an epic biographical drama film that chronicles the life of Pu Yi, the last emperor of the Qing Dynasty.

Italian director Bernardo Bertolucci adapted Pu Yi’s autobiography “From Emperor to Citizen (1964)” to portray China’s transition from feudalism through revolution.

Bertolucci, who showed deep interest in themes such as personal freedom and oppression, issues of power, and political absurdity, explores individual identity within the flow of history.

He expresses the tragedy of individuals swept up in political turmoil and the futility of power through symbolic language in a powerful narrative.

With magnificent cinematography, he projects artistic and poetic images onto the psychological depth and inner conflicts of the characters.

“The Last Emperor,” which won nine Academy Awards, is the first Western film shot in Beijing’s Forbidden City.

Bernardo Bertolucci

In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang, who founded the Ming Dynasty, established his base in the strategic location of Nanjing and drove the Yuan Dynasty forces out of northern China into Inner Mongolia, Primorsky Krai, Altai, and Siberia.

Emperor Hongwu (1368-1398), the founding emperor of the Ming Dynasty, abolished the Central Secretariat to eliminate any potential checks on his power and made the Six Ministries directly subordinate to the emperor, thereby establishing a powerful autocratic monarchy.

Zhu Yuanzhang set up the Jinyiwei (secret police) and the Duchayuan (censorate) directly under the emperor’s control, using these institutions to carry out large-scale purges of the founding officials. He also sent his sons to frontier fortresses.

The excessive purges led to a loss of support for his grandson, Emperor Jianwen (1398-1402), which prompted the Prince of Yan, Zhu Di, to initiate the Jingnan Campaign (1399-1402).

Emperor Yongle (1402-1424), who ascended the throne with the help of eunuchs, heavily employed eunuchs and strengthened the Jinyiwei.

Under the command of Admiral Zheng He, hundreds of ships embarked on six voyages, advancing tribute trade from Malacca and Ceylon to the entrance of the Red Sea and Zanzibar.

On January 1, 1421, Emperor Yongle moved the capital to Beijing (formerly known as Beiping), which was his political base.

By moving the capital northward, the historical stage shifted the center of Han Chinese civilization from Nanjing to Beijing.

Nurhaci, hailing from the Jianzhou Jurchens, ended 30 years of Tungusic power struggles and internal conflicts among the Jurchens.

As the Ming Dynasty of the Han Chinese declined, he founded the Later Jin Dynasty in 1616.

The Tianming Emperor (1616-1626) Nurhaci restructured the state by incorporating Mongols and Han Chinese into the unique military organization, the Eight Banners system.

His victory in the Battle of Sarhu (1619) allowed him to seize strategic locations in Liaodong.

Having fully conquered the Manchurian region, Nurhaci advanced into western Liaoning, captured Shenyang (Fengtian), and established it as his capital.

The Chongde Emperor (1626-1643) Hong Taiji sought to centralize power by establishing the Six Ministries system, separating military and civil administration, thereby completing a bureaucratic state system.

To overcome shortages of food and supplies, Hong Taiji launched an invasion of Joseon Korea, limiting its influence, and subsequently defeated Lin Dan Khan of the Northern Yuan, securing control over Inner Mongolia.

In 1636, Taizong Hong Taiji proclaimed the state as the Qing Dynasty. Adhering to Confucian legitimacy, he launched a campaign against Joseon, and held his imperial enthronement ceremony at Samjeondo.

After his uncle Dorgon moved the capital to Beijing and served as regent for the Shunzhi Emperor, the Qing Dynasty experienced a golden age during the 130-year reigns of the Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong Emperors, spanning the 3rd and 4th Chinese cycles (1678-1797).

However, unrest began in 1760 with the formation of the anti-Qing and pro-Ming secret society “Heaven and Earth Society” in Fujian Province, leading to internal strife and external threats from foreign powers.

The Empress Dowager Cixi, acting as regent for the Tongzhi Emperor (1861-1874), supported reforms by Han Chinese officials Zeng Guofan and Li Hongzhang, who had suppressed the Taiping Rebellion.

Yet, the defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894) led to the failure of the Self-Strengthening Movement. In response, the Guangxu Emperor (1874-1908) attempted to implement political reforms and strengthen the nation by aligning with lower officials and curbing Cixi’s influence.

Seeing through the intentions of the Hundred Days’ Reform, Cixi allied with conservative factions, placed the Guangxu Emperor under house arrest, and abolished the reform measures.

After the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901), Western powers, fearing reckless partitioning of China, preserved Cixi’s regime.

When the Guangxu Emperor died childless in 1908, Cixi installed the two-year-old Puyi as emperor. The Xuantong Emperor (1908-1912) Puyi spent his time as a puppet emperor in the Forbidden City.

With Cixi’s acceptance of foreign military presence from Beijing to Shanhaiguan, the Qing Dynasty (1616-1912) became defenseless and ultimately met its demise.

Sun Yat-sen, who established the Republic of China through the Xinhai Revolution (1912), transferred power to Yuan Shikai, the military leader of the Beiyang Army, for stable governance.

When Yuan Shikai died after attempting to consolidate a dictatorship against the tide of the times, the struggle for power among warlords began.

However, Chiang Kai-shek completed the Northern Expedition and established the National Government (1928-1949).

After being deposed, Puyi, feeling threatened by the First United Front (1924), moved to Tianjin, a Japanese concession.

Japan, after initiating the Manchurian Incident (1931) and establishing Manchukuo, installed Puyi as the puppet emperor, thereby severing Manchuria from China.

Japanese imperialism thwarted Puyi’s attempts to preserve Manchukuo’s identity, plunging him into despair.

Mao Zedong rose to political prominence at the Zunyi Conference (1935) and formed a temporary united front with Chiang Kai-shek following the Xi’an Incident led by Zhang Xueliang.

After breaking the Second United Front, Mao used strategic attacks and a war of attrition to annihilate the Nationalist army and establish the People’s Republic of China.

Captured by Soviet forces following Japan’s surrender, Puyi was repatriated to China in 1950, imprisoned as a defendant in the Tokyo Trials, and underwent ten years of war criminal reeducation.

After being specially pardoned by Mao Zedong, he returned to Beijing, led a modest life, and wrote his memoir, “From Emperor to Citizen” (1964).

Witnessing the extreme disorder of the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), the last emperor, Puyi, passed away.

The Cultural Revolution is another symbol of the tragedy of individuals swept up in political turmoil and the futility of power.